Topic: Prokaryotes + Eukaryotes {Seperate} But one in the Spirochete!!!
treepatrol
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While prokaryotes are nearly always unicellular , some are capable of forming groups of cells called colonies.{{Spirochetes do this}} Unlike many eukaryotic multicellular organisms, each member of the colony is undifferentiated and capable of free-living (but consider cyanobacteria , a very successful prokaryotic group which does exhibit definite cell differentiation). Individuals that make up such bacterial colonies most often still act independent of one another. Colonies are formed by organisms that remain attached following cell division, sometimes through the help of a secreted slimy layer {{{ again spirochetes do this}} .
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Spirulina is the common name for human and animal food supplements produced primarily from two species of cyanobacteria: Arthrospira platensis, and Arthrospira maxima. These and other Arthrospira species were once classified in the genus Spirulina. There is now agreement that they are distinct genera, and that the food species belong to Arthrospira; nonetheless, the inaccurate term "Spirulina" remains the popular name. Spirulina is cultivated around the world, and is used as a human dietary supplement, available in tablet, flake, and powder form. It is also used as a feed supplement in the aquaculture, aquarium, and poultry industries.
FamiliarLookingHuh?
Some species of cyanobacteria produce neurotoxins, hepatotoxins, cytotoxins, and endotoxins,{{sound familiar}} making them dangerous to animals and humans. Several cases of human poisoning have been documented but a lack of knowledge prevents an accurate assessment of the risks.
Nearly all prokaryotes have a single circular chromosome contained within a conglomeration of ribosomes and other proteins related to a transcription and translation region called the nucleoid, as opposed to the well defined, double membrane bound eukaryotic nucleus. Certain exceptions do apply, however. For example, Borrelia burgdorferi and the genus Streptomyces contain linear chromosomes, like the eukaryotes.
Iam convinced this guy Borrelia is of both worlds ? Is it natural? Parts from both prokaryotes + eukaryotes.
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Maybe it is just a matter of our boxes not fitting the complexity of the natural world. When I studied biology, there were fewer kingdoms, but now there are more. No change in the natural world, just our ways of dividing it up.
What I would like to know is whether Bb can be part of a biofilm, either with other microbes or by itself.
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treepatrol
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quote:Originally posted by lou:
What I would like to know is whether Bb can be part of a biofilm, either with other microbes or by itself.
Neither strain died in the experiment. We observed a form of biofilm-formation of large Borrelia burgdorferi bundles (see cover; unpublished), which likely served to protect Borrelia bacteria from complement.
This may be analogous to attack of the complement system on tumors, where the outer cell-layers are attacked, but the inner layers protected (128). This mechanism has also been documented elsewhere (76). MMPs (68, 75, 129) enable the spirochetes to invade tissues and when they are able to grow into a larger population, they may be able to shield each other by forming a form of biofilm. Because there was a very large amount of bacteria, the majority of the cells were not attacked. In a physiological sense this may partially explain the difficulty in treating persistent long-term infections.
Transfecting a serum sensitive B. garinii strain with a plasmid containing OspE from a serum resistant 297 strain, increased the serum resistance of the B. garinii strain (V). This suggests that in in vitro cultured B. garinii spirochetes, the expression of OspE-proteins is suppressed.
To cite this article: Mitsunori Yamada, Akihiko Ikegami, Howard K. Kuramitsu (2005) Synergistic biofilm formation by Treponema denticola and Porphyromonas gingivalis FEMS Microbiology Letters 250 (2), 271-277. doi:10.1016/j.femsle.2005.07.019
Attachment of T. denticola to fibronectin was determined at three time points, 1, 2 and 3 h. When quantified using the SAAPNA substrate the biofilms gave r.f.u. values of 13 225�2212, 10 611�645 and 4288�329, respectively. Analysis of the kinetics of biofilm formation indicated that T. denticola 35405 colonization of fibronectin-coated plates decreased over a 3 h period. This was undoubtedly the result of the degradation of fibronectin by dentilisin of strain 35405 (Ishihara et al., 1996) as the opposite observation was made with the dentilisin mutant. In contrast, when T. denticola was incubated with a preformed P. gingivalis biofilm the numbers of T. denticola recovered from the mixed biofilm after 5, 11?5 and 27 h gradually increased. When quantified using SAAPNA substrate, r.f.u. values of 1193�188, 4349�435 and 8160�633, respectively, were obtained. Therefore, T. denticola biofilm formation on preformed P. gingivalis biofilms was examined in greater detail. from:
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I keep wondering if part of the problem is that Bb joins forces with other microbes in a biofilm, altering the character of the film by their interaction, possibly explaining the puzzling behavior in treatment. But how would this work if other microbes are intracellular? Got my mind boggled for sure. And nobody is even seriously looking at polymicrobial diseases, certainly not NIAID.
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treepatrol
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Yep you got it !!! serious trouble
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treepatrol
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Think lou of just the coinfections we carry ? Think of the exchanges being made.
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Nature 445, 533-536 (1 February 2007) | doi:10.1038/nature05514; Received 13
September 2006; Accepted 8 December 2006
Evolution of species interactions in a biofilm community
Susse Kirkelund Hansen1, Paul B. Rainey2, Janus A. J. Haagensen1 and S�ren Molin1
1. Infection Microbiology Group, BioCentrum-DTU, The Technical University
of Denmark, Building 301, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark 2. School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand
Correspondence to: Paul B. Rainey2 Correspondence and requests for materials
should be addressed to P.B.R.
Biofilms are spatially structured communities of microbes whose function is dependent on a complex web of symbiotic interactions1, 2. Localized interactions within these assemblages are predicted to affect the coexistence of the component species3, 4, 5, community structure6 and function7, 8, 9, 10, but there have been few explicit empirical analyses of the evolution of interactions11. Here we show, with the use of a two-species
community, that selection in a spatially structured environment leads to the
evolution of an exploitative interaction. Simple mutations in the genome of one species caused it to adapt to the presence of the other, forming an intimate and specialized association. The derived community was more stable and more productive than the ancestral community. Our results show that evolution in a spatially structured environment can stabilize interactions between species, provoke marked changes in their symbiotic nature and affect community function.
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The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that 65 percent of human infections involve biofilms. Biofilm infections are less susceptible to antibiotics and contribute to the increased occurrence of resistant strains of bacteria.
"It is now abundantly clear that many chronic infections are established and persist because the bacteria involved form biofilms that resistant host defenses and conventional antimicrobial agents," said Professor Bill Costerton, Director of the Center of Biofilm Engineering. "The most effective potential therapeutic strategy that emerges from this new biofilm concept is the use of chemical signals and signal inhibitors to control or reverse biofilm formation. Biofilm control signals are used by aquatic plants to control microbial fouling on their photosynthetic surfaces. Natural compounds these plants use have great potential in the effective control of biofilm formation (and chronic bacterial infection) in patients, in both medical and dental contexts."
treepatrol
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This bugger is something else able to enter lymphocytes any cell it chooses bone,meat,brain,blood,then it cysts up,Lform,mating ball,blebs,coccoid able to leap tall buildings shhhhhhhhhhhhhhhheeeeeeeessshhhhhhhhh
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No wonder we have chronic lyme. This critter went way past the belt and suspenders stage. Got more tricks up its sleeve than we have countermeasures. Of course, an ignorant and incompetent govt response can't be blamed on Bb.
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treepatrol
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quote:Originally posted by lou: No wonder we have chronic lyme. This critter went way past the belt and suspenders stage. Got more tricks up its sleeve than we have countermeasures. Of course, an ignorant and incompetent govt response can't be blamed on Bb.
The term viteria is proposed for microorganisms that contain both eukaryotic-viral and prokaryotic-bacterial genetic sequences.
Alternative cellular energy pigments from bacteria of stealth virus infected individuals. Exp Mol Pathol. 2005; 78(3):215-7 (ISSN: 0014-4800) Martin WJ Center for Complex Infectious Diseases, 3328 Stevens Avenue, Rosemead, CA 91770, USA. [email protected]
Bacteria isolated from patients infected with stealth-adapted viruses can produce complex solid and thread-like structures similar to the alternative cellular energy pigments (ACE pigments) seen in cultures of stealth-adapted virus infected patients. Bacteria replication of stealth-adapted viruses can explain why certain patients diagnosed as having delusional parasitosis insist that the particles that they believe are parasitic, increase in number even when outside of the body.
Bacterial production of ACE pigments may also be contributing to the ACE pigments that can be isolated from the hair, sweat, and urine of such patients. The term viteria has been applied to stealth-adapted viruses that have acquired bacterial sequences. Viteria infected bacteria clearly pose an important public health problem and may lead to a wider dissemination of stealth-adapted viruses.
PreMedline Identifier: 15924874 [ View Online ][ Remove Abstract From List ] Bacteria-related sequences in a simian cytomegalovirus-derived stealth virus culture. Exp Mol Pathol. 1999; 66(1):8-14 (ISSN: 0014-4800) Martin WJ Center for Complex Infectious Diseases, Rosemead, California 91770, USA.
Extensive sequencing of cloned DNA isolated from the culture of an African green monkey simian cytomegalovirus-derived stealth virus has identified multiple regions of highly significant homology to various bacterial genes. The apparent acquisition of bacterial sequences extends the potential role of stealth viruses as natural vectors in the transfer of genetic information. The findings highlight the dynamic interface between viral and bacterial genomes and the potential of this interaction in the emergence and spread of novel pathogens. The term viteria is proposed for microorganisms that contain both eukaryotic-viral and prokaryotic-bacterial genetic sequences.
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Genome Organization
DNA molecules that replicate as discrete genetic units in bacteria are called replicons. In some Escherichia coli strains, the chromosome is the only replicon present in the cell. Other bacterial strains have additional replicons, such as plasmids and bacteriophages.
Chromosomal DNA
Bacterial genomes vary in size from about 0.4 � 109 to 8.6 � 109 daltons (Da), some of the smallest being obligate parasites (Mycoplasma) and the largest belonging to bacteria capable of complex differentiation such as Myxococcus. The amount of DNA in the genome determines the maximum amount of information that it can encode. Most bacteria have a haploid genome, a single chromosome consisting of a circular, double stranded DNA molecule. However linear chromosomes have been found in Gram-positive Borrelia and Streptomyces spp., and one linear and one circular chromosome is present in the Gram-negative bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The single chromosome of the common intestinal bacterium E coli is 3 � 109 Da (4,500 kilobase pairs [kbp]) in size, accounting for about 2 to 3 percent of the dry weight of the cell. The E coli genome is only about 0.1% as large as the human genome, but it is sufficient to code for several thousand polypeptides of average size (40 kDa or 360 amino acids).
The chromosome of E coli has a contour length of approximately 1.35 mm, several hundred times longer than the bacterial cell, but the DNA is supercoiled and tightly packaged in the bacterial nucleoid. The time required for replication of the entire chromosome is about 40 minutes, which is approximately twice the shortest division time for this bacterium. DNA replication must be initiated as often as the cells divide, so in rapidly growing bacteria a new round of chromosomal replication begins before an earlier round is completed. At rapid growth rates there may be four chromosomes replicating to form eight at the time of cell division, which is coupled with completion of a round of chromosomal replication. Thus, the chromosome in rapidly growing bacteria is replicating at more than one point. The replication of chromosomal DNA in bacteria is complex and involves many different proteins.
Plasmids
Plasmids are replicons that are maintained as discrete, extrachromosomal genetic elements in bacteria. They are usually much smaller than the bacterial chromosome, varying from less than 5 to more than several hundred kbp, though plasmids as large as 2 Mbp occur in some bacteria. Plasmids usually encode traits that are not essential for bacterial viability, and replicate independently of the chromosome. Most plasmids are supercoiled, circular, double-stranded DNA molecules, but linear plasmids have also been demonstrated in Borrelia and Streptomyces. Closely related or identical plasmids demonstrate incompatibility; they cannot be stably maintained in the same bacterial host. Classification of plasmids is based on incompatibility or on use of specific DNA probes in hybridization tests to identify nucleotide sequences that are characteristic of specific plasmid replicons. Some hybrid plasmids contain more than one replicon.Conjugative plasmids code for functions that promote transfer of the plasmid from the donor bacterium to other recipient bacteria, but nonconjugative plasmids do not. Conjugative plasmids that also promote transfer of the bacterial chromosome from the donor bacterium to other recipient bacteria are called fertility plasmids, and are discussed below. The average number of molecules of a given plasmid per bacterial chromosome is called its copy number. Large plasmids (>40 kilobase pairs) are often conjugative, have small copy numbers (1 to several per chromosome), code for all functions required for their replication, and partition themselves among daughter cells during cell division in a manner similar to the bacterial chromosome. Plasmids smaller than 7.5 kilobase pairs usually are nonconjugative, have high copy numbers (typically 10-20 per chromosome), rely on their bacterial host to provide some functions required for replication, and are distributed randomly between daughter cells at division.
Many plasmids control medically important properties of pathogenic bacteria, including resistance to one or several antibiotics, production of toxins, and synthesis of cell surface structures required for adherence or colonization. Plasmids that determine resistance to antibiotics are often called R plasmids (or R factors). Representative toxins encoded by plasmids include heat-labile and heat-stable enterotoxins of E coli, exfoliative toxin of Staphylococcus aureus, and tetanus toxin of Clostridium tetani. Some plasmids are cryptic and have no recognizable effects on the bacterial cells that harbor them. Comparing plasmid profiles is a useful method for assessing possible relatedness of individual clinical isolates of a particular bacterial species for epidemiological studies. The role of plasmids in the evolution of resistance to antibiotics is discussed below.
Bacteriophages
Bacteriophages (bacterial viruses, phages) are infectious agents that replicate as obligate intracellular parasites in bacteria. Extracellular phage particles are metabolically inert and consist principally of proteins plus nucleic acid (DNA or RNA, but not both). The proteins of the phage particle form a protective shell (capsid) surrounding the tightly packaged nucleic acid genome. Phage genomes vary in size from approximately 2 to 200 kilobases per strand of nucleic acid and consist of double-stranded DNA, single-stranded DNA, or RNA. Phage genomes, like plasmids, encode functions required for replication in bacteria, but unlike plasmids they also encode capsid proteins and nonstructural proteins required for phage assembly. Several morphologically distinct types of phage have been described, including polyhedral, filamentous, and complex. Complex phages have polyhedral heads to which tails and sometimes other appendages (tail plates, tail fibers, etc.) are attached.
A single cycle of phage growth is shown in Fig. 5-3. Infection is initiated by adsorption of phage to specific receptors on the surface of susceptible host bacteria. The capsids remain at the cell surface, and the DNA or RNA genomes enter the target cells (penetration). Because infectivity of genomic DNA or RNA is much less than that of mature virus, there is a time immediately after infection called the eclipse period during which intracellular infectious phage cannot be detected. The infecting phage RNA or DNA is replicated to produce many new copies of the phage genome, and phage-specific proteins are produced. For most phages assembly of progeny occurs in the cytoplasm, and release of the progeny occurs by cell lysis. In contrast, filamentous phages are formed at the cell envelope and released without killing the host cells. The eclipse period ends when intracellular infectious progeny appear. The latent period is the interval from infection until extracellular progeny appear, and the rise period is the interval from the end of the latent period until all phage are extracellular. The average number of phage particles produced by each infected cell, called the burst size, is characteristic for each virus and often ranges between 50 and several hundred. For discussions of structure, multiplication, and classification of animal viruses, see Chapters 41 and 42.
Phages are classified into two major groups: virulent and temperate. Growth of virulent phages in susceptible bacteria destroys the host cells. Infection of susceptible bacteria by temperate phages can have either of two outcomes: lytic growth or lysogeny. Lytic growth of temperate and virulent bacteriophages is similar, leading to production of phage progeny and death of the host bacteria. Lysogeny is a specific type of latent viral infection in which the phage genome replicates as a prophage in the bacterial cell. In most lysogenic bacteria the genes required for lytic phage development are not expressed, and production of infectious phage does not occur. Furthermore, the lysogenic cells are immune to superinfection by the virus which they harbor as a prophage. The physical state of the prophage is not identical for all temperate viruses. For example, the prophage of bacteriophage λ in E coli is integrated into the bacterial chromosome at a specific site and replicates as part of the bacterial chromosome, whereas the prophage of bacteriophage P1 in E coli replicates as an extrachromosomal plasmid.
Lytic phage growth occurs spontaneously in a small fraction of lysogenic cells, and a few extracellular phages are present in cultures of lysogenic bacteria. For some lysogenic bacteria, synchronous induction of lytic phage development occurs in the entire population of lysogenic bacteria when they are treated with agents that damage DNA, such as ultraviolet light or mitomycin C. The loss of prophage from a lysogenic bacterium, converting it to the nonlysogenic state and restoring susceptibility to infection by the phage that was originally present as prophage, is called curing.
Some temperate phages contain genes for bacterial characteristics that are unrelated to lytic phage development or the lysogenic state, and expression of such genes is called phage conversion (or lysogenic conversion). Examples of phage conversion that are important for microbial virulence include production of diphtheria toxin by Corynebacterium diphtheriae, erythrogenic toxin by Streptococcus pyogenes (group A β-hemolytic streptococci), botulinum toxin by Clostridium botulinum, and Shiga-like toxins by E coli. In each of these examples the gene which encodes the bacterial toxin is present in a temperate phage genome. The specificity of O antigens in Salmonella can also be controlled by phage conversion. Phage typing is the testing of strains of a particular bacterial species for susceptibility to specific bacteriophages. The patterns of susceptibility to the set of typing phages provide information about the possible relatedness of individual clinical isolates. Such information is particularly useful for epidemiological investigations.
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Bio Film search PubMed
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-------------------- Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. Remember Iam not a Doctor Just someone struggling like you with Tick Borne Diseases.
treepatrol
Honored Contributor (10K+ posts)
Member # 4117
posted
up
-------------------- Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. Remember Iam not a Doctor Just someone struggling like you with Tick Borne Diseases.
treepatrol
Honored Contributor (10K+ posts)
Member # 4117
posted
up so not to lose it
-------------------- Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. Remember Iam not a Doctor Just someone struggling like you with Tick Borne Diseases.
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